Choose an invention.describe and evaluate the effects it has had on a Essay

Choose an invention.describe and evaluate the effects it has had on a particular area of human life - Essay Example Computers have indeed done much to better the way people happen to do things. In that respect, it is really heartening to acknowledge that healthcare is an aspect of human life that has been totally revolutionized by the advent of computers, and computers have actually totally transformed the modern healthcare.1 It is a fact that in the area of healthcare, health records of patients do play a very important role. In that context, computers have totally redefined the record keeping in the field of healthcare.2 Health records of patients are not only vital for management of maladies of individual patients, but they are also important to predict larger societal healthcare trends. Before the invention of computers the record keeping in healthcare happened to be manual. It was not only very tedious to register and maintain the records of thousands of patients, but it was also utterly difficult to retrieve the health records of individual patients when required. However, with the invention of computers, things have totally changed. Computers have digitalized the recording and filing of patient records, thereby making it much more efficient, practical and faster. Computer generated and stored patient records not only happen to be more lasting and reliable, but it is much easier to retrieve the rec ords of specific patients. In fact with the computer assisted record keeping, it takes only a second to retrieve the health records of any patient. The computer assisted record keeping also assures that in the event of any man made or natural calamity, the health records of patients remain safe and secure at the offsite data storage locations. The other way in which the computers have positively influenced healthcare is by empowering the patients and by extending the reach of healthcare. In the earlier times even the most basic healthcare information was not easily available. However, with the advent of computers in the area of healthcare, computers have become a readily

One area of my business that I would like to change. The necessities Essay

One area of my business that I would like to change. The necessities of staff change - Essay Example In order to stay in a competitive market, fine tuning of business strategies or implementation of changes are necessary. I am running a Honda cars sales outlet at present and I would like to change the sales staff completely to promote more sales. My existing sales staffs are not competent enough to capture more business in this ever changing competitive market. Majority of them are more than 45 years of age. This paper describes why I want to implement a staff change in the sales department. The necessities of staff change Traditional Sales Mind-set always delivers a strong sales pitch. New Sales Mind-set stops the sales pitch -- and start a conversation. Traditional Sales Mind-set always looks for closing the sale. New Sales Mind-set is always to discover whether you and your potential client are a good fit (Galper, 2011). Relationship building is accepted as the core of every business activity at present. In other words, building strong relations with the customers is necessary fo r the benefit of a company. In this extremely competitive world, the value of customers is increasing rapidly. No organization can sustain its operations if it fails to attract a substantial volume of customers. My sales staffs are following the traditional patters of sales management. They are more interested only in capturing business than servicing the customers after the sales. In their opinion, their duty is over once they bring enough sales to the company. I got many complaints from different customers about the reluctance of my sales staff in servicing them after the closing of sales. The mind-set of my existing staffs needs to be changed completely. Even though I tried to empower them with the help of modern training methods, it is difficult for them to change their traditional methods and attitudes. A new sales team with ample knowledge in modern sales management techniques may serve better than my existing sales team. With superior knowledge in modern communication channel s and technologies, a new sales team would

Dextranase Enzyme Production

Dextranase Enzyme Production Dextranase definition and its uses Dextran is a collective name given to a large class of homopolysaccharides composed of D-glucans with contiguous a-1, 6 glycosidic linkages (95%), with minor secondary linkages such as a-1, 2, a-1, 3 and a-1, 4 [74]. It is produced by microorganisms such as Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Streptococcus sp., Acetobacter capsulatus and Acetobacter viscus [44]. Dextrans are well soluble in water, have low toxicity, and relative inertness. These properties make dextrans effective water-soluble carriers for dyes, indicators, and reactive groups in a wide variety of applications. They are widely used in the pharmaceutical and biochemical fields. Dextrans of low molecular weight are used as an alternative to blood plasma. They are also used for clinical purposes such as drug delivery [82], and by cross-linking for the production of the chromatographic matrix Sephadex. They are also widely used as both anterograde and retrograde tracers in neurons [94]. On the other hand microbial synthesis of de xtrans in damaged cane and beets or other products containing sucrose is a serious problem in sugar and food industry. Dextran is also a structural component of dental plaque which causes the development of dental caries [78], [85]. Dextranases are enzymes that cleave the a-1,6 glycosidic linkages of dextran to yield either glucose or isomaltose (exodextranases) or isomalto-oligosaccharides (endodextranases), and are only produced as extracellular enzymes by a small number of bacteria and fungi, including yeasts and perhaps some higher eukaryotes [44]. Enzymes in many groups can be classified as dextranases according to function: dextranhydrolases, glucodextranases, exoisomaltohydrolases, exoisomaltotriohydrases, and branched-dextran exo-1,2-alpha glucosidases. In particular the chemical reaction catalyzed is as follows: (1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)n + (1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)m à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬  (1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)n-1 + (1,6-alpha-D-glucosyl)m + 1 These enzymes belong to the family of glycosyltransferases, specifically the exosyltransferases. The systematic name of this enzyme class is: 1,4-alpha-D-glucan: 1,6-alphaD-glucan 6 alpha-d-glucosyltransferase. Other commonly used names include dextrin 6-glucosyltransferase and dextrin dextranase. Many microorganisms are known to produce dextranase, including filamentous fungi belonging to the genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, Spicaria, Fusarium and Chaetomium, bacteria, e.g. Lactobacillus, Cellvibrio, Flavobacterium etc. The only yeasts reported to produce dextranases are members of the family Lipomycetaceae. Only Lipomyces kononenkoae [104] and Lipomyces starkeyi dextranases have been characterized [47]. Potential commercial uses of dextranases include: The synthesis of potentially valuable oligosaccharides [30] Potential mouthwash ingredients since isomaltose may be of significant importance for the prevention of dental caries [40], [41] Clearance of dextran contamination in cane sugar processing [25] Dual-stimuli-responsive drug release as in biodegradable polymer-structured hydrogels of gelatin and dextran [55]. Hydrogels are used for a wide range of biomaterials applications such as: contact lenses, drug delivery vehicles and tissue adhesives. Dextrans are polymers that mimic biological sugars found on tissue surfaces. The dextran hydrogel system with tunable mechanical and biochemical properties appears promising for applications in cell culture and tissue engineering [58] Drug delivery device suitable for delivering drug to the colon [7], [8]. Brondsted et al. studied the application glutaraldehyde dextran as a capsule material for colon-specific drug delivery. The dextran capsules were challenged with a dextranase solution, simulating the arrival of the drug delivery to the colon, so they broke and the drug was released as a dose pump. The outcome highlights the dextran capsules as promising candidates for providing a colon-specific drug delivery Also in site-specific drug delivery systems with the use of antibodies [69] The improvement of brewing yeast strain for beer industry. Due to the rising demand for low-calorie beverages, including beer, recombinant strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been produced by integrating LSD1 gene of Lipomyces starkeyi [101]. S. cerevisiae lacks the ability to produce extracellular depolymerising enzymes that can efficiently liberate fermentable sugar from abundant, polysaccharide rich substrates [75]. By introducing the gene mentioned above, adding an exogenous enzyme during beer fermentation to achieve starch hydrolysis and oligosaccharide reduction can be avoided Carbohydrase activity produced can also be exploited in sensitive chromogenic bioassays for toxicity: a mycotoxin bioassay using the intracellular ÃŽÂ ²-galactosidase activity of Kluyveromyces marxianus has been developed [20] Classification of dextranase based on amino acid sequence Dextranases are dextran-degrading enzymes that form a diverse group of carbohydrases and transferases. The more recent classification divides dextranases into two classes: endodextranases (a-1,6-glucan-6-glucnohydrolase; also referred to as dextranase) and exodextranases ( glucan-1,6-ÃŽÂ ±-glycosidase; also referred to as dextran glucosidases). The Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUB-MB) provides a system of classification depending on the type of reaction catalyzed and product specificity (Table 1). Contrary to that system, the Carbohydrate Active Enzymes (CAZy) database describes the families on terms of structural and mechanical features of these enzymes; enzymes with different substrate specificities are placed in the same family and those that hydrolyze the same substrate are sometimes placed in different families. In another classification system, Henrissat and Bairoch [33] have divided glucosylhydrolases and glycosylt ransferases into five families on the basis of the similarities in the amino acid sequences (Table 2). Table 1: The IUB-MB classification system EC3.2.1.11 Dextranases EC3.2.1.70 Glucan-1,6-glucosidases EC3.2.1.94 Glucan-1,6-isomaltosidases EC3.2.1.95 Dextran-1,6-isomaltotriosidases EC3.2.1.115 Branched-dextran exo-1,2-glucosidases Table 2: Classification of dextran hydrolysing enzymes, based on amino acid sequences. Dextran-glucosidases Families 13 15 Isomaltodextranase Family 27 Isomaltotriosidase Family 49 Endodextranases Families 49 66 (no sequence similarities between the two families) Aoki and Sakano (1997) came up with 4 families [2]. They isolated and sequenced the isopullunase gene (ipuA) from Aspergillus niger ATCC 9642. The gene shows significant amino acid similarity to the dextranase produced by Penicillium minioluteum (PEMDEX) and Arthrobacter sp. (ARTDEX). Since ASNIPU shows great similarity to PEMDEX and ARTDEX, they can be classified as Family 1. In the same fashion, the researchers compared the amino acid sequences of dextranases and dextran-hydrolising enzymes, including ASNIPU. Lipomyces species and Lipomyces starkeyi Lipomyces starkeyi and Lipomyces kononenkoae belong to the Lipomycetaceae family and are the only yeasts reported to produce dextranases. The first Lipomyces species was identified by Robert Starkeyi in 1946 during a study of nitrogen-fixing bacteria: it was then that he discovered L. starkeyi, a fat-producing, ascosporogenous soil yeast. The family Lipomycetaceae was proposed later, in 1952 by Lodder and Kreger von Rij. Lipomyces species can utilize starch as a sole source of carbon. Both species contain highly efficient amylolytic systems, permitting growth on starch with very high biomass yields [97]. The family Lipomycetaceae is known to utilize certain heterocyclic compounds, such as imidazole, pyrimidine, and pyrazine and their derivatives, as sole nitrogen sources [92]. Information on the genome organization and molecular genetics of this group of yeasts is very limited. The ascosporogenous soil yeast L. starkeyi has been reported to produce commercially useful extracellular dextranase activity [97], [52], [53], and it can utilize a variety of other compounds, like hexoses, pentoses, alcohols and organic acids, as sole sources of carbon and energy [46]. The strains of L. starkeyi currently used are NCYC 1436, IGC 4047, ATCC 12659 and its de-repressed mutant ATCC 20825. L. starkeyi dextranases Commercial use of dextranase began in 1940s, mainly by producing low-molecular-weight clinical dextran. Therefore, industrially practical mixed culture fermentation of L. starkeyi and Leuconostoc mesenteroides was capable of producing controlled-size dextrans in order to satisfy clinical use, in which dextranase produced by L. starkeyi hydrolyzed the high molecular weight dextran produced by L. mesenteroides to a controlled size [46]. The enzyme production system of L. starkeyi needs an inducer. Dextran is its normal inducer but it is a relatively expensive carbon source for large-scale fermentations. Also, L. starkeyi is reported to have slow growth and difficulty of avoiding contamination from other microorganisms during growth. With that in mind D. W. Koenig and D. F. Day (1989) undertook to establish conditions which would minimize the cost of the inducer for producing an enzyme by using a de-repressed mutant of L. starkeyi ATCC 12659 grown on glucose. Thus the mutant ATCC 20825 is capable of hyperproducing dextranase at low pH to provide biologically contaminant-free supernatant liquid containing dextranase. Lipomyces starkeyi (IGC 4047), when grown on dextran as a sole carbon source produced a dextranase able to hydrolyse blue dextran and Sephadex G-100. The molecular weight was 23kDa and the isoelectric point was 5.4 [97]. The dextranase of L. starkeyi (ATCC 20825) studied by Koening and Day (1988, 1989a, 1989b) was analysed by SDS-PAGE and produced four bands, of molecular weights 65 kDa, 68 kDa, 71 kDa, and 78 kDa. Millson and Evans (2007) have isolated extracellular dextranase of L. starkeyi NCYC 1436 and have found that for their strain the enzyme occurs as three molecular weight species and seven isoelectric forms [68]. L. starkeyi nutrients (YPDex / YPD) The main ingredient in the chosen media is yeast extract. Yeast extract is a dried autolysate which facilitates rapid and luxuriant growth when used in various media or fermentation broth. It is a good source of amino-nitrogen and vitamins, especially the water-soluble B-complex vitamins. However, yeast extract is reported to enhance glucose metabolism to lipids, but inhibit lipolysis [18]. The metabolic pathway consists of converting glycerol into pyruvate or glucose and then hydrolysis by a phosphatase gives glycerol again. The disruption of this metabolic pathway, could account for the seemingly truncated numerous bands that SDS gives after prolonged storage of the yeast. Mycological peptone is incorporated in the media and discourages bacterial growth because of its acidity. Environment that dextranases favour Dextranase activity is affected by temperature, pH, metal ions and nutrients. According to Lin Chen et al (2007), dextranase activity is optimized between temperatures of 10oC and 60oC at pH of 6.0 [12]. In the particular study, the effect of pH on enzyme activity was determined by varying the pH between 3.5 and 8.5 under the temperature of 30oC. The pH of 3.4-4.5, 5.0-7.5, and 8.0-8.5 were maintained by sodium acetate buffer (20mM), citrate and phosphate buffer (20mM) and sodium phosphate buffer (20mM) respectively. The effects of metal ions (AlCl3, CaCl 2, CoCl2, CuSO4, FeCl3, KCl, MgCl2, NaCl, NiSO4, MnCl2 and ZnCl2) and SDS on dextranase activity were assayed by incubation of dextranase with 1mM metal ions or 1 mM SDS at pH 4.5 for 3h at 37oC, and then the enzyme activity of dextranase was determined. Ravi Kiran Purama and Arun Goyal (2008) in a study for optimization of nutritional factors, estimated dextransucrase activity in the cell free extract of Leuconostoc mesenteroides. They analysed the regression coefficients and t-values of six ingredients: yeast extract, sucrose, intercept, K2HPO4, beef extract, peptone and Tween 80. Yeast extract, sucrose, beef extract, and K2HPO4 displayed a positive effect for enzyme production whereas, peptone and Tween 80 had a negative effect on enzyme production. The variables with confidence levels greater than 90% were considered as significant. Sucrose was significant at 99.99% confidence levels for dextransucrase production. K2HPO4 and yeast extract were found significant about 94% level for dextransucrase production. Beef extract was significant 91% for dextransucrase production. Peptone and Tween 80 were found insignificant with negative coeffficients for enzyme activities. Methods used for enzyme activity measurement Enzymatic activity is measured with the help of laboratory methods called enzyme assays. All enzyme assays measure either the consumption or production of product over time. Enzyme assays can be split into two groups according to their sampling method: continuous assays, where the assay gives a continuous reading of activity, and discontinuous assays, where samples are taken, the reaction stopped and then the concentration of substrates/products determined [11], [20]. Continuous assays: Spectrophotometry in which you follow the course of the reaction by measuring a change in how much light the assay solution absorbs Fluorimetric assay in which we make use of the difference in the fluorescence of substrate from product to measure enzyme reaction. These assays are in general much more sensitive than spectrophotometric assays, but can suffer from interference caused by impurities and the instability of many fluorescent compounds when exposed to light Calorimetric assay in which the heat released or absorbed by chemical reactions is measured Chemiluminescence in which the light emitted by some enzyme reactions is measured so as to detect product formation. The detection of horseradish peroxidase by ECL is a common method of detecting antibodies in western blotting Discontinuous assays: Radiometry in which the incorporation of radioactivity in substrates is measured Chromatographic assays measuring product formation by separating the reaction mixture into its components. This is usually done by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), but thin layer chromatography can also be used. Although this approach needs a lot of consumables its sensitivity can be increased by labelling the substrates/products with a radioactive or fluorescent tag Methods and assays for dextranase activity measurement The large variability of available substrates makes it difficult to estimate the enzyme activity, because the reaction product is often an undefined mixture of sugar polymers. The existing assays try to compromise convenience, speed and accuracy [44] Viscosimetric analysis was among the first to be used [31], [35], [36]. This method measured the amount of enzyme which reduced the specific viscosity of the dextran solution by half in 10min. and it is more suitable when dextranase hydrolyses the dextran molecule at random, producing long oligosaccharides. Reducing-sugar assay or saccharogenic methods measure the rate of increase in reducing sugar as measured with the Somogyi assay, the 3,5-dinitrosalicylicacid method (DNS) [102], thiourea borax-modified O-toluidine colour reagent (35) and alkaline potassium ferricyanide solution (225). These methods test the presence of free carbonyl group (C=O). It is a simple method commonly used to analyze for reducing sugars produced from enzymatic hydrolysis of substrates such as starch and sucrose [67].The most common substrates applied are Dextran T2000,47 T-260,3 and T110 [54], [72]. A number of substances have been reported as interfering with DNS colour development and citrate is one of them. Acetate and citrate are reported to enhance colour development and the true antagonist in this reaction is the proton (H+) [96]. This method is based on the release of short coloured products from polymeric blue dextran and their selective colorimetric detection at 610-650nm after precipitation of the p olymer. DNS colorimetric assays reported in literature are often modifications of the method of Webb and Spender-Martins (1983). E. F. Khalikova and N. G. Usanov (2001) developed a dextranase assay using an isoluble substrate, namely, Sephadex G-200 with Remazol Brilliant Blue dye [45]. The action pattern of dextranase was then, studied by means of exclusion chromatography. Overall, this assay was reported as convenient for quantitative dextranase detection, relatively independent of the enzyme source, and is proposed as an inexpensive alternative to the known procedures utilizing coloured substrates. The dextranase substrates can be either dye-releasing or fluorogenic. The assay procedures based on these substrates are accurate, fast and can be recommended for dextranase-producing microbial screening and enzyme purification. Other assay procedures worth mentioning include a spectrophotometric method with the use of Blue Dextran developed by Kauko K. Makinen and Illika K. Paunio (2004) who recommend it for column chromatography [62], and a method based on simple titration, developed by Eggleston and Gillian (2005) for easy use at the sugar cane factory [19]. Fluorometric assays are based on measuring the fluorescence of the samples and the results are often compared to a series of standards of Penicillium sp. A very sensitive fluorometric assay using amino-dextran-70 coupled with fluorescent dye BODIPY (4,4-difluoro-5,7-dimethyl-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-sindacene-3-propionic acid, succinimidyl ester) as the substrate was described by M. Zhou et al. (1998). The BODIPY FL dye-labelled dextranase substrate is an amine-containing dextran derivative that is labelled with the pH-insensitive, green fluorescent BODIPY FL dye, resulting in almost total quenching of the conjugates fluorescence. The increase of the fluorescent degradation products of BODIPY FL dextran is proportional to the amount of dextranase activity [102]. A suspension of Sephadex in a buffer is supplemented with agar, sterilized, and poured in Petri dishes, and after the wells are filled with the test solution, they are left to incubate. The dextranase activity can be evaluated by the extent of halos around the holes due to the opalescence of Sephadex. Milson and Evans (2007), measured dextranase activity using SDS PAGE as described by Laemmli (1970), using both mini-gel and Protean II electrophoresis systems, and stained using Coomassie Blue [68], [56]. Molecular weight markers were used to construct a calibration curve, from which molecular weights of dextranase were determined. Native gel electrophoresis was performed, but the loading buffer and the gel lacked SDS and ÃŽÂ ²-mercaptoethanol and the samples were not heated prior to loading on the gel. In the same study, dextranase activity was estimated in SDS gels, without extraction, by a plate modified from the method of Lawman and Bleiweis (1991) [57]. FL versus DNS assay method The classic method (DNS) for measuring glycosidases through release of reducing activity is simple and inexpensive and, as cited above, has been modified in several studies so as to suit the researchers needs. It may, however, have some pitfalls. The reaction taking place is the following: aldheyde group oxidation> carboxyl group 3,5-dinitrisalicylic acid reduction-> 3-amino,5-nitrosalycilic acid (Nam Sun Wang, University of Maryland) The above reaction scheme shows that 1 mole of sugar reacts with 1 mole of 3,5-dinitrisalicylic acid. However, it is suspected that there are many side reactions, and the actual stoichiometry is more complicated than that previously described. Different reduced sugars yield different colour intensities; thus it is necessary to calibrate for each sugar. Apart from the oxidation, other side reactions may compete for the availability of 3,5-dinitrisalicylic acid. Consequently, the calibration curve may be affected and the intensity of the developed colour may be enhanced. Therefore, the method has low specificity and one must run blanks diligently if the colorimetric results are to be interpreted correctly and accurately [96]. Another obstacle to be dealt with when using DNS is non-linearity. One cause of non-linearity could be the common practice of diluting reaction products before quantification of reducing compounds and another is the insufficiency of substrates. The fluorometric assay (FL), seems to gain ground in the most recent studies as faster and more accurate and it seems to leave space for modifications and combined use with other methods (see  §1.3.1). A standard curve is constructed from Penicillium sp. and then compared with the one derived from Lipomyces starkeyi. As described in the previous paragraph dextranase activity is estimated by the increase of the fluorescent products of dextran degradation. However, if too many fluoro are conjugated to the dextran molecule undesired may come up. Molecular Probes TM seems to overcome this problem by removing as much of the free dye as possible and then assaying the fluorescent dextran by (TLC) to ensure that it is free of low molecular weight dyes. So, in general, FL seems to yield accurate curves. Millson and Evans (2007), used an assay of dextranase activity which was a variation on that reported by Zhou et al. (1998). In that study, fluorescence vs. dextranase activity produced a linear log [68], [102]. Purification of L. starkeyi dextranase Dialysis tubing Dialysis tubing is typically used for changing the buffering solution of a protein and is also a method for concentrating protein solutions by dialysis against a hygroscopic environment (e.g. PEG, Sephadex). The protein solution is contained within a membrane which permits solute exchange with a surrounding solution and whose pore size prevents the protein from escaping. Except for small volumes, this method is time-consuming [11]. Filtration Ultrafiltration Ultrafiltration (UF) is a variety of membrane filtration in which hydrostatic pressure forces a liquid against a semi-permeable membrane. Suspended solids and solutes of high molecular weight are retained, while low molecular weight solutes pass through the membrane. UF is not fundamentally different from microfiltration or nanofiltration, except in terms of the size of the molecules it retains. [11], [77]. SDS-PAGE Purification of Lipomyces starkeyi dextranase is carried out mainly by running a SDS-PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) analysis. The solution of proteins to be analyzed is first mixed with SDS, an anionic detergent which denatures secondary and non-disulfide-linked tertiary structures, and applies a negative charge to each protein in proportion to its mass. SDS binds in a ratio of approximately 1.4g SDS per 1.0g protein. The size of the protein is directly related to the distance it migrates through the gel. Dextranase molecules migrate as bands based on size. Each band can be detected using stains such as Coomassie blue dye [77]. Modifications to the polypeptide backbone, such as N- or O- linked glycolylisation, however have a significant impact on the apparent molecular weight. Thus, the apparent molecular weight is not a true reflection of the mass of the polypeptide chain. In most cases, SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is carried out with a discontinuous buffer system in which the buffer in the reservoirs is of a different pH and ionic strength from the buffer used to cast the gel. After migrating through a stacking gel of high porosity the SDS-polypeptide complexes are deposited in a very thin zone (or stack) on the surface of the resolving gel. The discontinuous buffer system that is most widely used was originally devised by Orstein (1964) and Dvis (1964) [77]. The sample and the stacking gel contain Tris Cl (pH 6.8), the upper and lower buffer reservoirs contain Tris-glycine (pH 8.3) and the resolving gel contains Tris Cl (pH 8.8). All components of the system contain 0.1% SDS [56]. Precipitation methods of proteins Precipitation is widely used in downstream processing of biological products, especially proteins. It serves to concentrate and fractionate the target product from various contaminants, as in biotechnology industry where precipitation helps to eliminate contaminants commonly contained in blood. The underlying mechanism of precipitation is to alter the solvation potential of the solvent and thus lower the solubility of the solute by addition of a reagent. Precipitation is usually induced by any of the following methods [11]: Salting out Isoelectric point precipitation Precipitation with organic solvents Non-ionic hydrophilic polymers Flocculation by polyelectrolytes Polyvalent metallic ions Salting out This the most common type of precipitation. Normally a neutral salt is added, such as ammonium sulphate, which compresses the solvation layer and increases protein protein interactions. As the salt concentration of a solution is increased, more of the bulk water is associated with the ions. Consequently, less water is available to partake in the solvation layer around the protein, which exposes hydrophobic interactions, aggregate and precipitate from solution. Isoelectric point precipitation The isoelectric point (pI) is the pH of a solution at which the net primary charge of a protein becomes zero. At a solution pH that is above the pÃŽâ„ ¢ the surface of the protein is primarily negatively charged and therefore like-charged molecules will exhibit repulsive forces. At a solution pH that is below the pI, the surface of the protein is primarily positively charged and repulsion between proteins occurs. At the pI, the negative and positive charges cancel, repulsive electrostatic forces are reduced and the dispersive forces predominate, and will, therefore, cause aggregation and precipitation. The pI of most proteins lies in the pH range of 4-6. Mineral acids, such as hydrochloric and sulphuric acid are used as precipitants. The greatest disadvantage to isoelectric point precipitation is the irreversible denaturation caused by the mineral acids. For this reason isoelectric point precipitation is most often used to precipitate contaminant proteins, rather than target pro tein. Precipitation with organic solvents Ethanol or methanol, if added to a solution may cause the proteins of the solution to precipitate. As the organic solvent gradually displaces water from the surface of the protein and binds it in layers around the organic solvent molecules, the solvation layer around the protein decreases. In that state, the protein can aggregate by attractive electrostatic and dipole forces. Parameters to consider are temperature (should be less than 0 °C to avoid denaturation), pH and protein concentration of the solution. Miscible organic solvents decrease the dielectric constant of water, which in effect allows two proteins to come together. At the pI the relationship between the dielectric constant and protein solubility is given by: log S = k/e2 + log S0 S0 is an extrapolated value of S, e is the dielectric constant of the mixture and k is a constant that relates to the dielectric constant of water [98]. Non- ionic hydrophilic polymers Dextrans, polyethylene glycols and other polymers are used in precipitation of proteins due to their low flammability and are less likely to denature biomaterials compared to pI precipitation. These polymers attract water molecules away from the salvation layer around the protein, which enforces protein-protein interactions and induces precipitation. For the case of polyethylene glycol, the following equation models precipitation: ln(S) +pS = X ÃŽÂ ±C C is the polymer concentration, P is a protein-protein interaction coefficient, ÃŽÂ ± is protein- polymer interaction coefficient and X = ( ÃŽÂ ¼i ÃŽÂ ¼i0 )RT ÃŽÂ ¼ is the chemical potential of component I, R is the universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature [98]. Flocculation by polyelectrolytes Polyelectrolytes form extended networks between protein molecules in solution. These include alginate, carboxylmethylcellulose, polyacrylic acid, tannic acid and polyphosphates. The pH of the solution determines the effectiveness of these polyelectrolytes. Anionic polyelectrolytes are used at pH above the pI. Cationic polyelectrolytes are used at pH above the pI. The precipitate may dissolve back into the solution if an excess of polyelectrolytes is used. Polyvalent metallic ions Enzymes and nucleic acids are precipitated with the use of metal salts at low concentrations. Most frequently polyvalent metallic ions used are Ca+, Mg+, Mn+ or Fe+. Precipitation reactors Industrial scaled reactors that are used to precipitate large amounts of proteins, such as recombinant DNA polymerases from a solution include: Batch reactors The agent is slowly added to the protein solution under mixing, so the aggregating particles tend to be regular in shape. The protein particles are exposed to a wide range of shear stresses for a log period of time and become mechanically stable. Tubular reactors The precipitating reagent and the feed protein solution are contacted in an area of mixing and then added into enlongeted tubes where precipitation occurs. Plug flow is approached by the elements as they move along the tubes. The tubular reactor is inexpensive to be constructed but can become long and slow in case that aggregation of the particles occur slowly. Continuous stirred tank reactors CSTR reactors also known as vat or back mix reactors, run at steady state with a continuous flow of reactants and products in a well-mixed tank. It is a type of reactor mainly used in chemical engineering. A CSTR often refers to a mathematical model which is used to estimate the key unit operation variables when using a continuous agitated-tank reactor to reach a specified output. Perfect mixing is demanded. Precipitation of L. starkeyi The most common precipitation methods in the case of L. starkeyi cited in literature are: Isoelectric focusing Koening and Day (1988) used precast IsoGel agarose isoelectric focusing plates, pH 5.0-8.5. A standard mixture of proteins was applied in the lane next to each sample and the protein profile was quantified by densitometer scans. The enzyme activity in the gel was determined by slicing an unstained gel into 0.9 mm sections. Each section was placrd in a test tube with 1.0 ml 0.05 M citrate/phosphate (pH 5.5) buffer, allowed to elute overnight at 4oC and assayed for enzyme activity. This method separated the protein mixture into five isoelectric bands. All five forms were found to have dextranase activity and exhibited the same Km values. Organic solvents Polyethylene glycol precipitation is often used. Nishimura et al. (2002) used this method in an effort to prepare total DNA from L. starkeyi for taxonomy analysis. They added phenol solution (phenol: chloroform: isoamyl alcohol=25:24:1) to a test tube of Tris-SDS. The

Religion and the Cause of War Essay example -- Religion War

Many times we can’t pin down the precise reason as to why wars are caused, but we can say as to why we choose to fight. We fight to defend what we believe in. Many would say that war is not caused by religion, but what exactly is religion? Religion is â€Å"Something one believes in and follows devotedly; a matter of ethics or conscience.† (dictionary) Although many things cause war, one cannot discount the role religion plays in the cause of war. According to Prominent US Catholic theologian Dr. William Cavanaugh â€Å"If one tries to limit the definition of religion to belief in God or gods, then certain belief systems that are usually called â€Å"religions† are eliminated, such as Theravada, Buddhism, and Confucianism. If the definition is expanded to include such belief systems, then all sorts of practices, including many that are usually labeled â€Å"secular,† fall under the definition of religion.† (Cavanaugh) This is a rather interesting s tatement, if we broaden our view on what religion actually is we can clearly see that â€Å"Religion† does have an impact on war. Some would say that religion only deals with those that believe and or follow God or gods others like Dr. Cavanaugh say that religion can consist of something entirely different. With this in mind we will begin our search on the role religion has in war we will first take a look at six out of the many recognized world Religions and what their beliefs are about war. A â€Å"Holy War† or a â€Å"Just War† is how some Religions justify war. The chart below shows six religions of the world and what their stance on war is. The outer ring shows the religions that do believe in any type of war and the inner ring shows the religions that do not believe in war, as you can see there are more religions t... ...Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press, 2000. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Lake City Community College. 29 October 2010 http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t48.e1384 "Crusades" World Encyclopedia. Philip's, 2008. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Lake City Community College. 29 October 2010 .html?subview=Main&entry=t142.e2980> Cavanaugh, William. T. Lyrical Ballads. London: Oxford U.P., 1967. Print. "Civil War, American" World Encyclopedia. Philip's, 2008. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Lake City Community College. 30 October 2010 Alchin, Linda.â€Å"Middle Ages† 16 July 2006. 24 Nov. 2010 .web.

A Bronx Tale: Sociological Perspective

A Bronx Tale is set in the 1960 in Bronx, New York (DeNiro, 1993). This movie centers on the child of a hard working man, Lorenzo Anello. Lorenzo Anello has avoided the life of crime by working had and holding firm to his beliefs of good and bad. However, his son Calogero Anello (C) becomes involved with the neighbor hood gangster Sonny. Against the wishes of his father C’s relationship with Sonny continues until the death of Sonny.There are three sociological theories of crime that can explain C’s continued friendship and growth in this life of crime; differential association, labeling, and strain.C’s career as a criminal begins with simple errands for Sony. As a child who did not know any better, C felt that making money would help his low class family. Here, the story begins by introducing the theory of strain. When an individual is under strain, in this case financial, that individual may be tempted to commit a crime (Blackburn, 1998). This theory applies to this situation because the crime continued to occur after C’s father told him what he was doing was illegal.   As C continues to work for Sonny it becomes clear that C’s feelings of strain lessen. This is depicted in two scenes.The first C is being punished by his father for continuing to work of Sonny. In this scene C seems to simply be putting up with the punishment that no longer has any effect. The other scene C shows up at his house to show off his new cloths to his mother. He is wearing an expensive suit with dress shoes. At this point other theories of criminality begin to emerge as explanations of the continued behavior.Differential association is the theory that criminal behavior is learned by the interactions of a particular subculture of group (Blackburn, 1998).   C is introduced to all the players of this neighborhood gang and at the same time given attention and praise for essentially being a â€Å"good† criminal. At this point C has stopped att ending school and he spends his days with the other men.   One scene shows the other gangsters and C in a basement playing cards and dice.The men loudly praise C. Later in the scene C is given the opportunity to play dice and as he wins, the men who bet on him win and the praise continues. This is a much different response then what he gets at home.   Additionally, he has recruited some of his friend to help him with his work. C and his friends mimic the men by committing crime and â€Å"hanging out† on the street during the day.The final theory of criminality depicted in this film is labeling. While Blackburn (1998) suggests that labeling is meant to deter the criminal behavior, this film portrays the opposite. This is seen when C come out of court. After being caught selling cigarettes, C must face a judge and is later dismissed of all charges.Upon leaving the courtroom C is greeted by a number of gangsters. Since he did not give the judge any names, he is applauded and given money. He, although he may have the label of being a gangster, he has achieved a higher status with these men. This acts to fuel the criminal behavior.It is clear that there are a number of theories throughout this film. The main theory, however, is differential association. There is a running theme of commitment and closeness. There seems to be nothing these men would not do for each other. Their belief system is one that they are above the law, and in turn they make up their own rules. By normal conventions of society this leads to criminal behavior. For C, like any child, he needed to be accepted and loved.This was something that he did not outwardly receive from his father. Prevention or intervention efforts could have been in the form of family counseling. It is possible if shown more love and acceptance from his father, C may not have turned the Sonny and his gang.  As a society in general emphasizing nurturing parenting skills will go a long way to preventing negativ e behaviors in children. Looking at the relationship between Sonny and C one can clearly see that Sonny gave C this and in turn C was committed to Sonny. This same phenomenon can occur for the good. If C’s father would have given C what Sonny had, C may have followed in his father’s footstep and became a hardworking, tax paying citizen.ReferencesBlackburn, R. (1998). The psychology of criminal conduct: Theory, research, and practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.DeNiro, R. (producer). 1993. â€Å"A Bronx Tale†.

Define the rule of the employers during the Industrial revolution

At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, employers were in virtually complete control of their employees and employees lives’. Government intervention to make the work place safe would not occur for several decades and factories were little more than slave shops under a different term. Typically, employees would have no rights at all regarding their employment and were forced to work in deplorable conditions: factories with insufficient light and unsafe work conditions. Many had no ventilation and were fire hazards because of the combustible materials that were used. Employees were forced to work long hours based on production needs and no thought was given to employee health or well-being. In many instances, the employer would create company towns in the region near their factories. The company would own all houses, markets and goods in the community. The company would then charge exorbitant rates for rent, food and goods making it virtually impossible for employees to get ahead. In many cases, the employee would work for a year only to owe the company money at the end of the year. This was done as a means to keep people from moving to other factories or other communities.   In addition, the law allowed people to be sent to prison for their debts and the debts of the parents to be passed on to the children, so often several generations of a family would be virtually enslaved by their employer. Wages that were paid were insufficient for a family to be fed and often parents and children worked in these sweatshops as a method of maintaining the family life. Children did not attend school or have any hope of a better life as they were sent in to the factories at very young ages. Women were often forced to leave children at home with an older sibling while they worked or were unable to work at all because of an infant or toddler in the home. Very young children placed a severe burden on the family because of the loss of wages and many children were abandoned to state-run orphanages in hopes that they would end up in a better life or to simply prevent a drag on the family’s income. This was not a benevolent dictatorship. The employer often ruled with an iron-fist and lived in the lap of luxury while his employees died of disease and malnutrition brought on by his greed. Employers were also allowed without repercussion to discipline employees as they saw fit and often took great liberties with female employees who were afraid of losing their jobs if they did not comply. Employers profited greatly during this time because labor was plentiful and they could make it cheap. Employers did not provide health care or disability for employees hurt or killed on the job.   Instead, the financial burden on their families was increased by the lack of income. And, people were hurt or maimed regularly by substandard equipment and poor conditions. Another favorite tactic on employers early in the Industrial Revolution was to pay people according to the number of pieces that they could produce.   This was yet another manner of ruling with an iron fist. Employers could assign employees to good machines, which produced fast and accurate pieces, or old and worn out machines at their discretion. Young people had an advantage of being able to work faster and often would have made better wages, except that employers seized on the idea that children had fewer responsibilities and used this as an excuse to pay children less even though they were expected to carry the workload of an adult. Children who failed were often beaten. During the American Civil War, proponents of slavery pointed out the inequities in the system and argued that Southern landowners often treated their slaves better than many employers treated their employees. They argued that a slave owner saw his slave as an investment and valued its contribution to his success and a business owner viewed his employees as an endless, replaceable commodity and took no personal responsibility for their safety, health or well-being. What is and was the right of existence for the unions? The UK was not initially a good place for unions to be. In 1799 and 1800, British Prime Minister William Pitt had a pair of acts passed called the combination acts which made it illegal for people to band together to try to get shorter working hours or more pay. Then, in 1817 Parliament against acted, this time making it illegal for a group of more than 50 people to meet together and order the arrest of anyone accused of spreading seditious libel, any untoward remarks regarding the Parliament or the Crown.   This severely hampered efforts for parliamentary reform as people were afraid to speak out. Two years later, nearly 50,000 people gathered at St. Peter’s Field to hear subversive, pro-union newspaper editors and other union leaders talk about the need for reform and the local magistrate, backed by the British Army, attacked, purportedly in an effort to arrest one of the speaks. Several accounts say many of the soldiers were drunk when they attacked the crowd with their sabres. As a result, Parliament instituted the Six Acts, which expanded the definitions of seditious libel and allowed permanent ceasing of a publication as means of punishment. It also changed the newspaper and stamp act so that even publications of purely opinion were subjected to the tax and provided local authorities with the right to seize people and arms accused of participating in a union gathering. In 1824, the combination acts were repealed and met with a national outbreak of strikes, resulting in Parliment's decision to pass a new combination act in 1835. This was the first significant legislation o legalize trade unions, though it made their scope very narrow. Trade unions could meet and discuss working conditions and pay only. Any other activities were considered a criminal conspiracy to restrict trade. The law also forbade unions from doing anything to obstruct or intimidate others. This was viewed as problematic as it gave the judiciary an unprecedented leeway in determining what activities violated the law. The act remained the law of the land until 1867 when Benjamin Disraeli and others banded together to have the law changed so that a striking union could be charged only with breach of contract and the government in power created the Trade Union Congress. Though calls to allow a union member into the Congress were rejected, the move proved to be an advancement in the cause of unionism. Four years later, the government finally made trade unions legal. In 1875 when Disraeli was named Prime Minister, as promised, he passed legislation making it legal for a union to do anything that an individual could do. This began the age of unionism and in 1880, Parliament passed legislation making management and employers responsible for the safety and well-being of the employees as long as their injury was not the result of actions by fellow workers. In 1906, legislation as passed to prevent employers from suing unions when they had a loss of income as a result of a strike and in 1913 legislation made it clearly legal for the labor unions to contribute to the political party of their choice as determined by union leadership. In 1927, legislation was passed to prevent civil servants from joining unions affiliated with the Trade Union Congress and outlawed the use of sympathetic strikes and general strikes. That is, with minor revision, the state of the trade labor union today. On which roles does the Globalization of the economy depend? Globalization of the economy is a tricky business and highly dependent on the ability of workers and employers to adapt to the changing international labor market and the changing role of the industrialized world in the age of technology. There has been some effort made within the last two years to update the trade union system and encourage union modernization so that the workers can quickly be retrained with skills more appropriate to the emerging labor market. As with other parts of the world, the concern among trade unions is that jobs traditionally left to them are now being outsourced to cheaper labor environments worldwide. If we are to adjust to this availability of cheap labor elsewhere, we must do so by changing the way we look at labor unions and evaluating the new markets that could be the modern labor frontiers. One example of this might be to examine computer workers and administrative positions traditionally viewed as white collar work. These areas are the new growth industries and in recent years, the site of the most abuse of employees. In addition, these more advanced positions have traditionally had to negotiate salaries for themselves resulting in huge disparities person to person and based on gender, age, and other discriminatory factors. For globalization to work the economy must be revitalizes and the United Kingdom must adjust its perceptions at home and abroad about the things that it will produce. No longer will mining and textiles be a major portion of the economy. Instead, if we are to accept our part in a global economy, we must identify new areas in which we can develop an unrivaled expertise and global reliance. In a 2005 report, HM Treasury argued that the UK is in an unrivaled position worldwide to make the most of globalization in that we have the economic and trading ties to the entire world. In addition, we have a strong business, technology and macroeconomic base from which to begin our quest. Not only must we train employees in the fast-growing areas of technology which will present the best opportunity for our people, but we must also reward innovation and creativity. The report calls for the support of workers who need to be retrained to join the global economy and the wise and efficient use of energy and resources as a means to prevent reliance on other countries for our energy needs. Most importantly, we must rely on the well-established international trade that helped build and strengthen the economy in the first place. It is vitally important that the country not turn to isolationism as a manner of dealing with the threat of international competition. The problem is that many people promote the idea of protectionism as a way to avoid the international competition, but we know that this approach will only lead to a need to rejoin the world economy at a later date when we are less strong and able to do so. We must move forward now and implement change instead of hiding from it. What is mundialism or anti globalization? Mundialism is the process of building interconnected word governing bodies rather than integrating the existing nation-states into an interdependent global world. Proponents of mundialism argue that entities such as the International Court and a one-world government should be created rather than relying on the concept of nation-states. Mundalism promoted the concept that what is right for the world as a whole is right for the individual citizens and the individual nations of the world. It argues that by working together for the common good, we can overcome economic, social and ideological differences for the betterment of all humankinds. Anti-globalization can encompass a number of different policies, but largely it is the idea that the governments, economies and societies of the world should not be interdependent and that they should remain separate by distinct barriers including borders and cultural boundaries. Anti-globalization proponents are perhaps the most extreme opponents of mundialism. They believe that the world is already too interconnected and that it would be better if we could simply draw the curtains up around our countries and keep the rest of the world argue. Many argue that the world can never be as interdependent as promoted by mundialism and that it will always be divided by was and ideology. The idea, they say, is that human nature is competitive and that we cannot make all faiths and all political viewpoints get along. Some would even argue that the only way that mundialism could work would be with a strong world ruler, that someone would have to get the final deciding vote on right and wrong. Mundialism supporters argue that if the nation’s of the world all expressed a true desire to work together in harmony the major strife points of the world could be eliminated and wars and border disputes could end. Anti-globalization proponents call that pie in the sky nonsense. There will always be a competition for resources and for power. Those without it will strive for it via any means necessary and those who have it will seek to retain it. Somewhere in there middle is where we actually are. There are some world organizations, like the International Criminal Court and there are some opponents to those organizations, like the United States. There are growing disputes worldwide over everything from economic gain to religion to claiming the land that sits beneath the polar icecaps. And, neither theory adequately addresses what should be done about global problem areas like Rwanda and Darfur, places where the massacres keep happening, the land is destroyed and the people are unable to subsist, much less contribute to a world economy. Describe the Trade union s structure and state why the unions are losing members. Trade unions are designed to be very specific in their membership and then are loosely affiliated with the Trade union Congress. However, this specialization is contributing to the decline of the unions and the loss of members nationally. Unions are supposed to be local, with members choosing a regional representative to speak to the specific concerns of their company or community. Then, the locals are affiliated with a national organization which is in turn affiliated with the national congress. But in recent years, with declining employment in regions once covered by the trade unions, even the largest of the unions are beginning to shrink or disappear entirely.   This is a factor of the changing work environment within the UK, as more and more people are working in quasi-professional positions not covered by the trade unions. Furthermore, even locally, unions do not represent the universal political opinions that they once did. Neighbors now may agree on matters of union employment, but have vastly different opinions with regards to national politics and how the union should be influencing them. This diversity in the union has caused a loss of political power and a loss of interest within the membership. In addition, the major concern facing trades people in 2007 is not something the union can do much to change.   Unions have had little impact in corporate decisions to close factories or move operations to other nations where the labor costs are more favorable. The days of the union being able to protect its workers and provide for a safer work environment, better benefits and a happier way of life are gone, Instead, the unions continue to take dues from members, reducing their overall take home pay, but add no benefits. The days of the sweatshop are long gone and virtually every worked is provided the same protections under the law that a union worker can get in a union shop.   That is not to say that the union has outlived its usefulness, but rather that unions have accomplished their original goals of workplace safety and equal treatment for workers. If unions seriously want to reverse the trend of losing membership, they must realize that they play an important role in the globalization process and update themselves to meet that need. Unions must be actively involved in retraining workers and helping them to find new means of gainful employment.   Unions must work in conjunction with business to find better ways to improve global competitiveness and to make employers understand the value of well-educated, highly-trained workers over cheap labor in an unregulated state.

MITOSIS essays

MITOSIS essays Mitosis is the nuclear division in which the duplicated chromosomes separate to form two genetically identical daughter nuclei. It is also a phase in cell cycle in which the microtubular apparatus assembles, binds to the chromosomes, and moves the sister chromatids apart. Mitosis is the essential step in the separation of the two daughter genomes. Mitosis is subdivided into four stages, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Prophase is the first stage of mitosis characterized by the formation of a microtubule spindle along the future axis of division, the shortening and thickening of the chromosomes and their movement toward the equator of the spindle. The nucleolus also starts to disappear and the chromosomes condense. Metaphase is the second stage of mitosis. In this stage microtubules become organized into a spindle and the chromosomes come to lie in the spindles equatorial plane. When viewing this with a light microscope the chromosomes appear to arrange themselves in a circle along the inner circumference of the cell. Anaphase is the next stage of mitosis. In this stage the sister chromatids begin to separate and the daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. Kinetochore microtubules shorten, polar microtubules elongate, and the cell begins to prepare for cytokinesis. The final stage of mitosis is telophase. In this stage the spindle apparatus disables, as the microtubules are broken down into tubulin monomers that can be used to construct the cytoskeletons of the daughter cells. The sister chromatids can now be called chromosomes because each has its own centromere. The chromosomes soon begin to uncoil into the more extended form that permits gene expression. Mitosis is now complete at the end of telophase. The eukaryotic cell has separated its replicated genome into two nuclei positioned at opposite ends of the cell. ...

Neolithic pottery and art Culture

Neolithic pottery and art Culture Introduction The Neolithic period is one of the most fascinating periods in the Chinese history; a period believed to have started in 10,000 B.C. and came to an end eight thousand years later. This period was characterized by a population, which solely depended on crop and domestic animal farming as opposed to gathering and hunting as considered as common ancient economic activities.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Neolithic pottery and art Culture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Like in other parts of the world, Chinese Neolithic inhabitants preferred occupying regions along rivers and lakes for easy access of water, which was a major family need. Of great significance is the Chinese artistic tradition that has its core traces in the middle of the Neolithic group (The Metropolitan Museum of Art 1). There are groups of artifacts which prove the existence of the tradition. This paper analyses, pottery culture du ring the Neolithic culture with special emphasis on some of the social reasons which prompted the development of the culture. Additionally, several images have been compared with a thorough discussion of the social importance of certain artifacts within the historical environment. Categories of artifacts As mentioned above, Chinese artistic tradition was divided into two categories. The first group was the painted pottery which was common along the Yellow River Basin that stretched to the northwestern part of China from Gansu province. Yangshao emerged in the central region while Machang, Banshan and Majiayao were witnessed in the northwest region (The Metropolitan Museum of Art 1). Yangshao pottery was done using coils of clay, which were stuck together and smoothened into customized shapes and sizes. Pottery containers from graves were principally painted with red and black color to signify pain and mourning. It is believed that this practice depicts ancient use of brushes for sev eral linear compositions among others. The second category of Neolithic artifacts encompassed jade carvings and pottery originating from the eastern seaboard and the lower side of the Yangzi River towards the southern direction (Jiang and Liu 356). This representation included Hemedu, Liangzh, Dawenkou and Longshan. It is important to mention that Eastern China pottery was distinctively known for its unique shapes as compared to those from the central region, which mainly included the tripod that later remained significant during the Bronze Age. Even though some paintings from the eastern region were painted as part of decorations, those from the coast mainly utilized burnings and technical incising. Notably, the craftsmen of the Neolithic period in China have been recognized throughout history for their invention of the Wheel (The Metropolitan Museum of Art 1).Advertising Looking for term paper on art? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Another important aspect of Chinese culture during this period was the use of jade among potters. This made lifetime contributions into what was later known as Chinese civilization (Pryor 1). Stone was also commonly used in making designs among the Neolithic settlements. The best stones were always chosen depending on their strength and quality before being fashioned into desired items of value. Nephrite, also known as â€Å"true jade†, was considered tough and strong by most craftsmen and was therefore frequently used than other stones in the region at that time. This was a common phenomenon in Zhejiang and Jiangsu especially towards the end of the Neolithic period (Pryor 1). An important feature of jade was its hardness, and proved tough during carving as it required a strong knife and always turned out to be laborious. Incised decorations and glossy polished surfaces required high skills and extraordinary patience from craftsmen in order to realize outst anding good results. Archeological findings have always revealed the presence of jade in and commonly placed alongside privileged dead bodies before burial could take place. Axes Like other artifacts during the period, jade axes1 were symbolic and carried unique message for the public. Besides being used during burial, they also symbolized harsh punishment especially in cases where one was found guilty of a serious criminal offense. After carving of the axe, it was always fixed into a stick which served as the handle. It also denoted gaining of power by one person to lead others (Thorp and Vinograd 35). The significance of Jade axes tremendously evolved, making them to become symbols of social importance. Image 1 Regional pottery and art As mentioned above, the Neolithic period saw the emergence of artifacts and designs which later became the foundation of the Bronze Age. These carvings and other forms of art were unique depending on the geographical location since different people valued art uniquely.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Neolithic pottery and art Culture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As a result, provinces and even villages identified themselves with certain designs with a few similarities being noted. Additionally, artifacts carried meaning that was easily communicated within the area of origin as different groups of people had customized interpretation and understanding of art as described below. Image 2 Image 3 Yangshao Village Yangshao Village2 had a wide range of potteries during the Neolithic period with special focus on 4500 B.C. Most of its artifacts carried complicated designs even though one could easily consider them to be simple, with three distinctive categories being recognized. These included owl3, animal and lady figures (Thorp and Vinograd 47). Based on these groups, it suffices to mention that each artifact within a given class symbolized a certain asp ect of people’s life. Therefore, their presence always had unique interpretation by the people of that time. Although its meaning was not quite clear to many, owl images were common in the village and they took different shapes and designs as chosen by the artist. The design and most features of most owl images indicated the strength of the animal. Other people also believed that owl represented the messenger of some supernatural being that was beyond their knowledge and understanding.Advertising Looking for term paper on art? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On other occasions, they were used to imply the need for people to stay awake during the night for their own safety (Thorp and Vinograd 48). On the other hand, fish figures depicted the lifestyle of people at the moment as fishing was one of the economic activities of the time and a major source of food. The first owl image above denotes the strength of the animal from its strong wings and legs. Being a core aspect of any community, fertility was also represented through art. Frog images were commonly used to denote this as they were designed with a human shape and artistic decorations. Common features included legs and the use of three to four colors as part of the final touches to make the figure more attractive. They were generally made by hand although they always had asymmetric shape (Thorp and Vinograd 50). Image 4 Another village which valued artistic images and figures was Dahe in Henan Province. People from this village expressed their ideas through figures also witnessed in other regions during this period. Axe, bird and fish figures were quite common and signified their daily lives in terms of economical aspect of living. Farming was a common practice together with fishing. The figures emphasized how their daily lives were shaped. Similarly, Xia Dynasty4 and Shang Dynasty valued pottery and their cultures. There were three subjects that were common and significant in these dynasties (Thorp and Vinograd 256). These were sky, earth and people. People from these dynasties believed that the earth produced rulers of the earth and the universe. Their tombs were however characterized by several layers which implied the existence of numerous layers of the universe. Several figures were also recognized including the axe and Vassal among others, with each pottery denoting a specific meaning or aspect of their lives. Some of the images like gold seals were a symbol of wealth and material ability for the community and were common in tombs. Image 5 Conclusion From the above analysis of pottery and art culture during the Neolithic period, it is evident that most people of this age highly valued their culture pricelessly. Through expert skills and knowledge, they expressed their feelings, lifestyle and other aspects of life through artistic figures and decorations. Of significance is the image of animals among their potteries (Kuijt 297). Common animals included owls and fish whose symbolic meaning revolved around the nature of their daily life and the existence of a supernatural being respectively. Social status was also represented by several artistic images like tombs with solid gold which always symbolized a sense of wealth and high social status. Other elements of high standards of living included but not limited to golden horse, mirror, cosmetic containers and elegant dining ware. In general, Neolithic period significantly prepared people for the Bronze Age that was experienced later on. There were several artifacts which found way i n this age, implying the importance of Neolithic period in Chinese history and Cultural Revolution. Jiang, Leping, and Liu Li. â€Å"New evidence for the origins of sedentism and rice domestication in the Lower Yangzi River, China.† Sedentism and rice domestication in South China 80 (2006): 355-361. Kuijt, Ian. Life in Neolithic farming communities: social organization, identity, and differentiation. London: Springer, 2000. Print. Pryor, Francis. â€Å"Overview: From Neolithic to Bronze Age, 8000 800 BC.† BBC News 2011. bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/british_prehistory/overview_british_prehistory_01.shtml. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Neolithic Period in China, 2011. Web. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cneo/hd_cneo.htm. Thorp, Robert, and Vinograd Richard. Chinese art culture. New York: Abrams, 2001. Print. Footnotes 1 Tool used during burial and was associated with high punishment. 2 A village found on the western side of Henan near the Yellow River. 3 Owl figures were 36 cm in height and were designed to stand freely. 4 Regarded as the first dynasty in the history of China.

A Biography of Notorious Auschwitz Doctor Josef Mengele

A Biography of Notorious Auschwitz Doctor Josef Mengele Josef Mengele (March 16, 1911 - February 7, 1979) was a Nazi SS doctor who experimented on twins, dwarves, and others at the Auschwitz Concentration Camp during the Holocaust. Although Mengele looked kind and handsome, his heinous, pseudoscientific medical experiments, often performed on young children, has placed Mengele as one of the most villainous and notorious Nazis. At the end of World War II, Mengele escaped capture and is believed to have died in Brazil 34 years later. Early Life Born March 16, 1911, in Gà ¼nzburg, GermanyParents were Karl (1881-1959) and Walburga (d. 1946), MengeleTwo younger brothers: Karl (1912-1949) and Alois (1914-1974)Nickname was Beppo1926 diagnosed with osteomyelitis Education and Beginning of WWII 1930 graduated from the GymnasiumMarch 1931 joined the Steel Helmuts (Stahlhelm)January 1934 SA absorbed StahlhelmOctober 1934 left SA because of kidney trouble1935 awarded Ph.D. from the University of MunichJanuary 1, 1937, appointed a research assistant at the Third Reich Institute for Heredity, Biology, and Racial Purity at the University of Frankfurt; worked with Professor Otmar Freiherr von VershuerMay 1937 joined the NSDAP (member #5574974)May 1938 admitted to the SSJuly 1938 awarded medical degree by University of FrankfurtOctober 1938 began basic training with the Wehrmacht (lasted three months)July 1939 married Irene SchoenbeinJune 1940 joined the medical corps (Sanittsinspektion) of the Waffen SSAugust 1940 appointed an Untersturmfà ¼hrerAttached to Genealogical Section of the Race and Resettlement Office in occupied PolandJune 1941, sent to Ukraine as part of the Waffen SS; received the Iron Cross, Second ClassJanuary 1942 joined the Waffen SSs Viking Division medical cor ps; earned the Iron Cross, First Class by pulling two soldiers out of a burning tank while under enemy fire; also awarded the Black Badge for the Wounded and the Medal for the Care of the German People; wounded End of 1942 reposted to the Race and Resettlement Office, this time in its headquarters in Berlinappointed to Haupsturmfà ¼hrer (captain) Auschwitz May 30, 1943, arrived at AuschwitzConducted medical experiments on  twins, dwarfs, giants, and many othersSeemingly constant presence and participation in the selections at the rampResponsible for selections in the womens campcalled Angele of DeathMarch 11, 1944, his son, Rolf, was bornSometime middle of January 1945, he fled Auschwitz On the Run Arrived at Gross-Rosen camp; then left before Russians liberated it on February 11, 1945Spotted at MauthausenCaptured as a prisoner of war and held in a POW camp near MunichReceived papers from fellow prisoner, Dr. Fritz Ulmann; for vanity reasons had not gotten blood type tattooed beneath arm, American Army did not realize he was a member of the SS and released himAliases include: Fritz Ullmann, Fritz Hollmann, Helmut Gregor, G. Helmuth, Jose Mengele, Ludwig Gregor, Wolfgang GerhardRemained on George Fischers farm for three years1949 escaped to Argentina1954 his father came to visit him1954 divorced from Irene1956 had his name officially changed to Josef Mengele1958 married his brother, Karls, widow - Martha MengeleJune 7, 1959, West Germany issued its first arrest warrant for Mengele1959 moved to Paraguay1964 the Universities of Frankfurt and Munich withdrew his academic degreesAssumed that his remains were buried in Embu, Brazil in a grave marked Wolfgang GerhardBelieved to have d ied on February 7, 1979, on the beach at Bertioga in Embu, Brazil while suffering a stroke while swimming in the ocean. February 1985 a public trial, in absentia, was held at Yad VashemIn June 1985, the body in the grave was exhumed for forensic identification.

Book review( Leadership tool kit) Bryn Hughes Essay

Book review( Leadership tool kit) Bryn Hughes - Essay Example Hughes’ observes that leaders should explore motives and outline key result areas amongst other things. In essence, Hughes does not only dwell on ethical leadership, but also on professional competence in leadership. He seems to affirms strongly that leadership is God chosen and should be treated with the seriousness and responsibility it deserves. Hughes sees leadership as a state of mind of a person who is visionary and spiritual. He also sees leadership to be defined by sound character. The author also analyses that good motives of a leader should be to share with other so that they can achieve together as a team. His understanding of motives is leadership is also pegged in Bible teachings on leadership. He analyses in various ways that proper motives are the key drivers for any success as a leader. One may see that although he focuses on doing the right thing from the Biblical context of righteousness, his leadership tools also blend well in the context of organizations in the contemporary societies. One may also note that when Hughes explains the concept and the relevance of motives to Christian leadership, he also captures on the teachings of Jesus about what constitutes sins. Jesus on His part observes in the Bible (Mathew 5:28) that whoever has looked at a woman lustfully has committed sex with her. One may say that it is in this regard that Hughes focuses and emphasizes on good motive. Although he does not dwell on the subject with very specific examples, it is understandable that anything that does not constitute God’s will is morally wrong for Christian living. This way, he observes, leaders are able to improve themselves as individuals and improve their teams. The author emphasizes that Christian leaders are should work hard towards acquiring these skills in contemporary society. In order to achieve this, the author rightfully recognizes that there is a need to identify key result areas. Hughes offers that leaders should have the drive and the desire to achieve. They do this through a display of effort in the various areas that they have identified as areas of need. When there is a strong desire to take or accept responsibilities, then a leader is on course. Leadership that is concerned about not just tasks to be completed but also demonstrates which tasks is preferable. Hughes seems to assert that proper leadership would involve being efficient at allocated tasks through proper facilitation and motivation (Hughes, 2002, p. 34). The leader should demonstrate a high morale through involvement with his/her team. This is observable through proper coordination. Other key result areas include being supportive, participative and directive. Churches can enhance leadership by training leaders at various levels to be supportive in their various involvements. Sometimes things not work out as expected. Hughes offers that leaders should support others especially by recognizing the effort put into it. Most importantly, they s hould offer support on various tasks on progress as might be necessary. It is also important that leaders acquire skills through actual participation in the various areas of involvement in the church leadership. While working in their teams, the author also offers that there is a need for leaders to be trained to be visions creators. Visionary leaders are capable of come up with new ideas that will help in goals setting and eventual action plan.

Reflective Journal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reflective Journal - Assignment Example Seeking to be a manager of a manufacturing firm, my strengths in interpersonal relationship and team leadership would enable me foster a collaborative management as this would ensure that employees’ ideas are considered in decision-making. This would be useful in avoiding resistance to change or management’s decisions. However, I would have to work on my conflict resolution and negotiation skills so as to enable me maintain harmony in the organisation and enforce a balance between organisational and individual goals. I would also have to improve on my communication skills to relay information effectively. The effectiveness of this tool in determining the alignment of my competencies to my expected managerial roles made me appreciate the argument by Chaston (2011) and Rosaline (2013) that gap analysis helps in the identification of personal goals. I am now aware of my strengths and the areas where I would need to improve on so as to become an effective manager. Management process could be more complicated than it could appear. This could even be more pronounced in case of an organisation operating in a complex and changing environment. As such, the postulate by Henry Mintzberg on the roles in managing information, people and action as given by Muma, Smith and Somers (2005) and Schermerhorn (2011) would be critical. The interpersonal role of a manager as a leader; informational roles as a monitor and disseminator; and decision roles as a disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator would be useful in such a situation. In my view, complex situations cause confusion among employees. Therefore, the role of a manager as a leader would help in guiding employees on the way forward in case of dilemmas. Organisations need to be keen on the changes in the environment so as to make decisions on adaptive strategies that would ensure their

Exam 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Exam 1 - Essay Example The era witnessed the passing of 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments; The Civil Rights Acts of 1866 and 1875; Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and the Enforcement Acts of 1871. The period was also characterized by political terrorism and violence from groups like Ku Klux Klan and the White League. In the end, black equality was not realized as the South and North united at the expense of Black rights. The main Reconstruction question was whether to punish the rebel states or forgive them and whether to grant the Blacks full equality (Foner 60-78). Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation proclamation in 1863 thus freeing the former slaves. A Freedman’s Bureau was established to oversee the welfare of the former slaves such as education. Lincoln’s plans were moderate thus not popular with Radical Republicans. Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Johnson became president in 1864. Just like Lincoln, his Reconstruction plan was sympathetic to the rebel states. Although he believed in state rights, his hatred for blacks affected his plans (Foner 176-184). He made an amnesty proclamation which set simple terms for rebel states wishing to join union such as taking loyalty oath. The Radical Republicans were not pleased and took over the Reconstruction efforts using their congressional power to pass major legislations which granted legal equality to Blacks. The major legislations included the 1866 Civil Rights Act which granted rights to blacks as citizens of the U. S. They could testify in court, make labor contracts and hold property (Foner 239). The military reconstruction Acts of 1867 steered Reconstruction efforts and were used to police the Southern states. The Acts gave permission to these states to form new constitutions and set conditions for readmission to the union. The 14th Amendment of 1868 followed which stated â€Å"all persons born or naturalized in U.S and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of US

Reflective account Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Reflective account - Essay Example ics such as technology and labour, sustainability, human resource management, strategy, operations management, just to mention but a few that fall under the global business concept. However, in this reflective paper; we will delve into details on human resource management. This paper will discuss in details the key principles of human resource management, its significance and relevance to the global business world as well as connect it with other topics that fall and the global business concept. According to Patrick (2012), Human resource management or simply HR is a function of the organization that is designed to maximize the performance of employees and the achievement of employer strategic objectives. Human resource is particularly concerned about how the organization will manage people in the organization and focuses on policies and systems. The department usually has a number of roles and tasks that they fulfil; these functions include the following: Recruitment, this is the intake of new staff into the organization. The human resource department ensures that only qualified individuals get into the organization and at the same time ensuring that the organization does not suffer due to lack of personnel. HR is also tasked with the training and development responsibility. They will ensure that employees meet the demands of the workplace environment by organizing seminars, in-house training, and educational classes also conducted. The human resource department works clos ely with the industrial relations of the organization. They aim at balancing the organization’s practices with the requirements that arise from collective bargaining and public law (Patrick, 2012). The department may also be tasked with the role of ensuring that the workplace is safe for the employees. It does this by making sure that the company conducts its activities in line with the work safety standards. Lastly, the Human Resource department is tasked with the role of enforcing and making

Consumer Adoption of Hybrid Car Technology Dissertation

Consumer Adoption of Hybrid Car Technology - Dissertation Example This section will investigate vehicle registration data and predictions of consumer demand based upon the Thatchenkery analysis (2008) unless otherwise noted, factual attributions in this section of the study will be conclusions drawn from Thatchenkary 2008. From this article, further pressing questions will be addressed relating to consumer choice of hybrid automobiles and the obstacles towards greater market penetration. These questions can be divided between internal factors and external ones relating to consumer choice. The internal questions would relate more to ideological choices encouraging the purchase of a hybrid vehicle, and whether or not the structure and utility of the vehicle is pleasing to a given individual. External questions relate to socioeconomic factors affecting society as a whole. Can the economy and infrastructure of most industrialized countries be converted to support this innovation? How soon? And at what cost? A detailed analysis is necessary in order to identify the pros and cons of hybrid automotive technology and determine the benefits and consequences of government subsidies of the same. Various incentives and tax credits are under consideration by government agencies for the purpose of subsidizing a transition to hybrid vehicle or technology. An analysis of the available technical literature is required in order to determine the success of the subsidy programs, and the likelihood of any unintended consequences that might be detrimental to other sectors of the economy. And whether the widescale implementation of hybrid automobiles can be realized to a great enough extent to achieve both the goals of transportation, and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. When the decision is made by government to subsidize hybrid electrical vehicles, the decision invites analysis concerning the form and implementation of the subsidies. Among the issues that this analysis will explore, is the question on whether government subsidies in the form of income tax credits represents a more powerful incentive towards the purchase of hybrid vehicles as opposed to an incentive based on sales tax. The effectiveness of various government incentive programs will be evaluated in light of hybrid purchases, and overall efficiency in a world of rising gasoline prices. This analysis will also seek to identify variations in the demand among consumers as it pertains to the hybrid automobile market. This will be compared against the effectiveness of various government subsidy programs to develop a more thorough picture of the best means by which to promote hybrid automotive technology. It is also necessary to evaluate the effect of convenience of the vehicle compared with the desirability of incentives. Can a government subsidy for hybrid vehicle or purposes enhance sales even in cases where the vehicle might seem less convenient? How important is the comfort and utility of the vehicle compared with the possible incentives of some form of sales tax subsidy, or advantage in regards to the individual consumers income tax? Methodology This study is a literature meta-analysis of the concerns and actions resulting from hybrid automotive technology. A comparison of the primary literature, both legal and technical will be utilized to answer fundamental questions regarding hybrid automotive technology. This analysis seeks to evaluate whether current hybrid technologies do represent increased energy efficiency, as well as a reduction in overall

Discussion on the Current situation of Inner Mongolia franchise hotel Dissertation

Discussion on the Current situation of Inner Mongolia franchise hotel industry in marketing and strategy aspect - Dissertation Example Physical data of each hotel is first presented after which the perception of the interviewees would be presented. This would however, not be individually presented but the outcome as a group would be presented. Super8 This is a part of the chain hotel with 136 rooms in Inner Mongolia. Three employees from different managerial levels could be interviewed. The headquarters is in charge of the hotel management while daily operations rest with the manager appointed by the headquarters. They are positioned as a high class hotel and cater to the segment that has a relatively high taste for accommodation, according to the AGM but the FOM and the cashier believe that they are positioned in the industry as a hotel that caters to the price-sensitive customers. The AGM and the FOM consider their neighbors as their main competitors but the cashier considers hotels with similar price structure to be the main competitors. Hailiang Hotel Only the Sales Manager from this hotel could be interviewed. They have 660 rooms and the franchisee require room space and room number. Their main competitors are the hotels that belong to the same star category. They are positioned as a hotel with interests in group and business segment. They are in the Group accommodation franchise model. Haixia Hotel This independent 110 room hotel does not belong to any chain and is an independent hotel with the voluntary chain franchise model. The General Manager, who was interviewed at this hotel, claims that they have no competitors. They maintain excellent relationships with other hotels in the area as they share market information and business groups. The GM declined to answer how they have positioned themselves in the sector. Hua Chen Hotel Hua Chen is a part of the regular chain with 149 rooms and 3 restaurants having a total of 550 sites. Their competitors are those that belong to the same category. They have positioned themselves as a 4 star hotel focusing on the mining business customers. Iron B ull Hotel The Sales Manager of the Iron Bull Hotel with 268 rooms considers Erdos holiday hotel and Erdos Dong Shi Days Inn as their main competitors. They follow the regular chain model and consider themselves as an upscale hotel in Erdos. Phoenix Hotel Two marketing representatives and one sales representative from this hotel were interviewed. They have 280 rooms and the franchisee has no requirements. Their main competitors include Inner Mongolia hotel, Jinjiang hotel, Shangri-la hotel, holiday hotel and Kingshidom hotel. They focus on the upscale independent business traveler. They are a part of the regular chain of the Air China Group and they target the business and conference groups as their primary target and the tourists as the second target segment. The franchised hotels follow certain strategy based on various factors. The responses of the interview have been categorized under different headings to evaluate the success of the franchised models. Factor for success The inte rviews were open-ended which revealed several factors, opinions and perspectives. Thus, to the question on which were the factors they considered as critical to the success of the franchised operations, different hotels came up with different perspectives. The factors ranged from location, pricing, service, clean environment to overall management and training of employees. Some also pointed out the relationship with the travel agents and the local government is critical to the

Consumer Adoption of Hybrid Car Technology Dissertation

Consumer Adoption of Hybrid Car Technology - Dissertation Example This section will investigate vehicle registration data and predictions of consumer demand based upon the Thatchenkery analysis (2008) unless otherwise noted, factual attributions in this section of the study will be conclusions drawn from Thatchenkary 2008. From this article, further pressing questions will be addressed relating to consumer choice of hybrid automobiles and the obstacles towards greater market penetration. These questions can be divided between internal factors and external ones relating to consumer choice. The internal questions would relate more to ideological choices encouraging the purchase of a hybrid vehicle, and whether or not the structure and utility of the vehicle is pleasing to a given individual. External questions relate to socioeconomic factors affecting society as a whole. Can the economy and infrastructure of most industrialized countries be converted to support this innovation? How soon? And at what cost? A detailed analysis is necessary in order to identify the pros and cons of hybrid automotive technology and determine the benefits and consequences of government subsidies of the same. Various incentives and tax credits are under consideration by government agencies for the purpose of subsidizing a transition to hybrid vehicle or technology. An analysis of the available technical literature is required in order to determine the success of the subsidy programs, and the likelihood of any unintended consequences that might be detrimental to other sectors of the economy. And whether the widescale implementation of hybrid automobiles can be realized to a great enough extent to achieve both the goals of transportation, and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. When the decision is made by government to subsidize hybrid electrical vehicles, the decision invites analysis concerning the form and implementation of the subsidies. Among the issues that this analysis will explore, is the question on whether government subsidies in the form of income tax credits represents a more powerful incentive towards the purchase of hybrid vehicles as opposed to an incentive based on sales tax. The effectiveness of various government incentive programs will be evaluated in light of hybrid purchases, and overall efficiency in a world of rising gasoline prices. This analysis will also seek to identify variations in the demand among consumers as it pertains to the hybrid automobile market. This will be compared against the effectiveness of various government subsidy programs to develop a more thorough picture of the best means by which to promote hybrid automotive technology. It is also necessary to evaluate the effect of convenience of the vehicle compared with the desirability of incentives. Can a government subsidy for hybrid vehicle or purposes enhance sales even in cases where the vehicle might seem less convenient? How important is the comfort and utility of the vehicle compared with the possible incentives of some form of sales tax subsidy, or advantage in regards to the individual consumers income tax? Methodology This study is a literature meta-analysis of the concerns and actions resulting from hybrid automotive technology. A comparison of the primary literature, both legal and technical will be utilized to answer fundamental questions regarding hybrid automotive technology. This analysis seeks to evaluate whether current hybrid technologies do represent increased energy efficiency, as well as a reduction in overall

The construction of sexuality through culture and history Essay Example for Free

The construction of sexuality through culture and history Essay Introduction The queer theory has led to questions on the sexuality in various cultures. Teresa de Lauretis is the person [www. cddc. vt. edu]who came up with the phrase â€Å"Queer Theory†. It was at a working conference on theorizing lesbian and gay sexualities that was held at the University of California, Santa Cruz in February 1990. Once the term queer was, at best, slang for homosexual, at worst, a term of homophobic abuse. Today queer has come to be used differently, sometimes as an umbrella term for a coalition of culturally marginal sexual self-identifications and at other times to describe a theoretical model which has developed out of more traditional lesbian and gay studies. Queer focuses on mismatches between sex, gender and desire. Institutionally, queer has been associated most prominently with lesbian and gay subjects, but its analytic framework also includes such topics as cross-dressing, hermaphroditism, gender ambiguity and gender-corrective surgery. In many respects, Queer theory is grounded in gender and sexuality. Due to this association, a debate emerges as to whether sexual orientation is natural or essential to the person, as an essentialist believes, or if sexuality is merely a construction and subject to change [www. cddc. vt. edu]. The essentialist theory was introduced to Queer Criticism as a by-product of feminism when the criticism was known by most as Lesbian/Gay Criticism. The feminists believed that both genders have an essential nature (e. g. nurturing and caring versus being aggressive and selfish), as opposed to differing by a variety of accidental or contingent features brought about by social forces. Due to this belief in the essential nature of a person, it is also natural to assume that a person’s sexual preference would be natural and essential to a person’s personality, who they are. The Constructivists counters that there is no natural, that all meaning is constructed through discourse and there is no other subject other than the creation of meaning for social theory. In a Constructivist perspective, it is not proper to take gay or lesbian as subjects with objective reality; but rather they must be understood in terms of their social context, in how genealogy creates these terms through history. Foucault explains in his The History of Sexuality, 200 years ago [www. ipce. info] there was no linguistic category for gay male. Instead, the term that applied to sex between two men was sodomy. Over time, the homosexual was created through the discourses of medicine and especially psychiatry. What is conventionally understood to be the same practice was gradually transformed from a sinful lifestyle into an issue of sexual orientation. Foucault argues that prior to this discursive creation there was no such thing as a person who could think of himself as essentially gay. Queer theory is mainly addressing the issues on gender and sexuality. Due to this question, a debate arises as to whether sexual orientation is natural or essential to the person, or if sexuality is merely a construction and subject to change. This theory has led to criticism known by most people as Lesbian/Gay Criticism. The feminists believed that both genders have an essential nature for example nurturing and caring versus being aggressive and selfish as opposed to differing by a variety of accidental or contingent features brought about by social forces. so natural to assume that a person’s sexual preference would be natural and essential to a person’s personality, who they are [www. ipce. info]. The Constructivists counter, that there is no natural, that all meaning is constructed through discourse and there is no other subject other than the creation of meaning for social theory. In a Constructivist perspective, it is not proper to take gay or lesbian as subjects with objective reality; but rather they must be understood in terms of their social context, in how genealogy creates these terms through history. Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures This refers to the behaviors, beliefs, knowledge, and references shared by members of sexual minorities or transgendered people by virtue of their membership in those minorities. Not all members of a particular sexual minority participate in, or are aware of, the subculture that may be associated with them. In addition to simply not knowing that the culture exists, non-participants may be geographically or socially isolated, they may feel stigmatized by the subculture, they may simply dislike it (feeling it is outdated, corrupted, or does not align with their personal taste or style), or they may prefer to affiliate with some other culture or subculture. The sexual minorities [Kaahumanu and Yaeger]defined by sexual orientation and gender identity include: lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered people (LGBT). they are often seen as having a common culture. The existence of (LGBT) has also been questioned by noting the exclusion of some of these groups by others; for example, biphobia among gays and lesbians, transphobia among non-trans LGB people, or lack of inclusiveness of lesbians in gay milieu. For example, in some cities, especially in North America, gay men and lesbians tend to live in certain neighborhoods. This culture is mainly associated with the people of North America or Europe. LGBT communities also organize a number of events to celebrate their culture, such as Pride parades, the Gay Games and Southern Decadence the largest LGBT street fair in North America [Kaahumanu and Yaeger].